Definition and Types of Motives

'Motives are internal drives or forces that stimulate, direct, and sustain behavior towards achieving a goal.''
  They are the psychological reasons behind actions, influencing why people do what they do. Motives arise from biological needs, social desires, or personal aspirations, creating purposeful behavior aimed at satisfying those needs or desires.
''Motivation is the process by which motives are activated and maintained, and it explains the initiation, intensity, direction, and persistence of behavior.''

 Types of Motives

Motives can be broadly classified into two main categories:

A. Biological (Primary) Motives

These are innate, physiological needs essential for survival and biological functioning. They are universal and not learned.

  • Hunger: Drives the search for food to maintain energy and bodily functions.

  • Thirst: Stimulates drinking water to maintain fluid balance.

  • Sleep: The need for rest and recuperation.

  • Sex: Drives reproduction and continuation of species.

  • Avoidance of pain: Motivates behaviors that prevent injury or harm.

Characteristics:

  • Innate and unlearned

  • Linked directly to bodily survival

  • Trigger automatic responses

Example: A person feels hungry and seeks food.

B. Psychological (Secondary) Motives

These are learned motives that arise from social and psychological needs, often related to personal growth, achievement, and social interaction.

  • Achievement Motive: Desire to excel and attain success.

  • Affiliation Motive: Need for social connections, friendship, and belonging.

  • Power Motive: Desire to influence, control, or lead others.

  • Curiosity Motive: Drive to explore and gain knowledge.

  • Recognition Motive: Desire for status, approval, or praise.

Characteristics:

  • Learned through experience and socialization

  • Influenced by culture and environment

  • Often more complex and variable across individuals

Example: A student works hard to get good grades to gain recognition.

. General Motives

General motives refer to broad categories of motivation that apply across various situations and influence wide areas of behavior. They can be seen as overarching drives guiding many specific behaviors.

Some common general motives include:

  • Growth Motive: The desire to develop, improve, and realize one’s potential. It involves self-actualization and personal development.

  • Example: Learning a new skill for self-improvement.

  • Social Motive: The urge to connect with others, belong to groups, and gain social approval.
    Example: Joining a club to make friends.

  • Safety Motive: The need for security, stability, and protection from harm.
    Example: Choosing a secure job with health benefits.

  • Cognitive Motive: The drive to acquire knowledge, understand the world, and satisfy curiosity.
    Example: Reading books or researching topics of interest.

3. Other Classifications of Motives

a. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motives

  • Intrinsic Motives: Arise from internal satisfaction or interest in the task itself.
    Example: Reading a book for pleasure.

  • Extrinsic Motives: Driven by external rewards or pressures.
    Example: Studying to get a scholarship.

Basic Emotions

Basic emotions are fundamental feelings that are universally experienced across all human cultures. They are biologically innate, automatic, and have distinct facial expressions.

Commonly accepted basic emotions include:

  • Happiness

  • Sadness

  • Fear

  • Anger

  • Surprise

  • Disgust

Culture and Emotion

Influence of Culture:
While basic emotions are universal, culture shapes how emotions are experienced, expressed, and interpreted. Culture influences:

  • Display Rules: Social norms that dictate how, when, and to whom emotions are expressed (e.g., some cultures discourage open expression of anger).

  • Emotion Regulation: Different cultures encourage different ways to manage and control emotions.

  • Emotion Meaning: The interpretation and value assigned to emotions vary across cultures. For example, some cultures value calmness and harmony more than overt happiness or excitement.

  • Emotional Vocabulary: Some languages have words for emotions that do not have direct equivalents in other languages, showing cultural specificity.

Cultural Variation Examples:

  • In collectivist cultures (e.g., East Asian), emotions emphasizing social harmony like shame or embarrassment are more prominent.

  • In individualistic cultures (e.g., Western), emotions emphasizing personal achievement like pride are more valued.

Theories Of Emotions:

Here are three key theories on emotion explained concisely:

1. James-Lange Theory of Emotion

  • Definition: Emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to events. Our awareness of bodily changes creates the emotional experience.

  • Process:

    • Stimulus (e.g., seeing a bear) → Physiological response (e.g., increased heartbeat, trembling) → Perception of this bodily change → Emotion (fear)

  • Key Idea: Emotion is the consequence, not the cause, of bodily responses.

  • Strengths:

    • Emphasizes the role of the body in emotional experience.

    • Supported by evidence that bodily states influence feelings.

    Example: You see a snake → your body trembles → you feel fear

    2. Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

    • Definition: Emotional experience and physiological reactions occur simultaneously and independently after a stimulus.

    • Process:

      • Stimulus (e.g., seeing a bear) → Brain processes the stimulus in the thalamus → Simultaneous signals to the cortex (emotion) and autonomic nervous system (bodily response) → Experience of emotion and physiological reaction happen at the same time.

    • Key Idea: Emotion and bodily responses are parallel processes, not sequential.

    • Strengths:

      • Explains how emotions can be felt even if bodily feedback is blocked (e.g., in cases of spinal cord injury).

      • Accounts for the complexity and speed of emotional processing in the brain.

    Example: Seeing a snake triggers both fear and increased heart rate simultaneously.

    3. Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory (Cognitive Arousal Theory)

    • Definition: Emotion depends on two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal.

    • Process:

      • Stimulus → Physiological arousal → Cognitive appraisal (labeling the arousal) → Emotion

    • Key Idea: The same physiological state can produce different emotions depending on context and interpretation.

    • Strengths:

      • Accounts for variations in emotional experience based on situational cues.

      • Supported by experiments showing the importance of cognitive labeling.

Functions Of Emotions:

  • Survival: Emotions prepare the body to respond to threats or opportunities (fight or flight).

  • Memory Formation: Emotional events are more likely to be remembered vividly.

  • Social Bonding: Positive emotions foster relationships and group cohesion.

  • Conflict Resolution: Emotions like guilt or shame encourage reconciliation and repair.

  • Self-Awareness: Emotions help individuals understand their own needs and desires.

  • Problem-Solving: Emotions can signal the need to address challenges or dangers.

  • Energy Mobilization: Emotions activate physiological resources to take action.

  • Communication: Emotional expressions serve as signals in social interactions.



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